Optimising physical and mental performance is essential for military personnel, not only for regular candidates but particularly those undergoing training or selection for Special Forces or for elite airborne and maritime units. No matter whether you are in Singapore, the UK or US, if you are a candidate for SOF, Commando; Special Forces, SEAL or RASP; Parachute Regiment, Royal Marine or other - you will have increased nutritional demands.
Several recent studies, on both male and female personnel, provide valuable insights into how diet quality influences performance and overall health in Special Forces candidates, soldiers and recruits. In this article we explore the findings from multiple military focused studies so that you can make informed decisions to support your own training programme.
As ever, please talk to your doctor or medical practitioner most familiar with your medical history before implementing any changes in diet, exercise or lifestyle, especially if you are under treatment. Military personnel should seek guidance from their Directing Staff or training team. We also welcome any feedback to improve the article. Links to relevant studies at bottom of page.
The Nutritional Baseline of Military Personnel
A study by Rittenhouse et al (2020) examined 531 active-duty US Army soldiers from across various ranks and roles. Researchers assessed their overall diet quality and blood markers to measure key nutrient levels.
The average 'healthy eating' score among soldiers was 59 out of 100, only slightly better than that of a civilian control group, 55 out of 100 - data taken from the national NHANES nutrition survey.
More concerning were the nutrient deficiencies identified in blood samples. While most markers were within normal ranges, two major deficiencies stood out:
Vitamin D: 86% of soldiers had insufficient vitamin D levels, which is concerning as it plays a key role in muscle strength, endurance and immune function.
Omega-3 Index: The average omega-3 level was 3.8%, well below the recommended >8% for cardiovascular and cognitive health. Omega-3 fats help reduce inflammation, improve blood flow and support muscle recovery, making exercise feel easier and reducing soreness. They also enhance joint health and brain function, keeping your body and mind strong for better performance and endurance.
In terms of diet quality, soldiers scored highly for refined grains (that is, they eat too many), greens and total protein intake - but scored poorly in whole grains, sodium moderation and fatty acid balance. These results align with previous military nutrition research, which has consistently shown that soldiers consume too much refined grain, saturated fat and sodium while lacking essential micronutrients.
Diet Quality and Success in Special Forces Selection
Farina et al (2020), assessed 782 U.S. Army soldiers attempting to qualify for Special Forces. Researchers evaluated their diet quality using the Healthy Eating Index (HEI)-2015, which scores diets based on adherence to federal nutrition guidelines. Candidates then completed gruelling physical challenges.
The findings were striking: soldiers with higher HEI-2015 scores were significantly more likely to be selected for Special Forces training. Higher diet quality was associated with better endurance, faster road march times and stronger fitness test performances.
Specifically, candidates who ate more vegetables, greens, beans and seafood/plant-based proteins tended to outperform their peers. Interestingly, the study also found that higher sodium intake correlated with better endurance, suggesting that electrolyte balance plays a key role in sustaining performance under extreme conditions.
One notable pattern emerged: while better diet quality consistently improved selection chances, those in the third quartile of diet quality were 75% more likely to succeed than those in the lowest quartile, while those in the top quartile were 65% more likely to be selected. This suggests that there may be a threshold where further dietary improvements offer diminishing returns, or that other factors - such as higher sodium intake - may contribute to endurance and selection success.
Nutrition Deficiencies in Army Soldiers
Rittenhouse et al (2020) examined 531 active-duty Army soldiers from across various ranks and roles. Researchers assessed their overall diet quality and biochemical markers to measure key nutrient levels.
The average HEI-2015 score among soldiers was 59.9 out of 100, only slightly better than that of a civilian control group (55.4). This suggests that most soldiers - outside of Special Forces candidates - do not consistently follow optimal dietary guidelines. More concerning were the nutrient deficiencies identified in blood samples. While most markers were within normal ranges, two major deficiencies stood out:
Vitamin D: 86% of soldiers had insufficient vitamin D levels, which is concerning as it plays a key role in muscle strength, endurance and immune function.
Omega-3 Index: The average omega-3 level was 3.8%, well below the recommended >8% for cardiovascular and cognitive health. Supplements are an option but many are not worth the money, learn more here.
The study highlighted the lack of seafood and plant-based omega-3 sources in soldiers' diets, reinforcing the importance of fatty fish, flaxseeds, walnuts and omega-3 supplementation for military personnel.
In terms of diet quality, soldiers performed well in refined grains, greens and total protein intake, but scored poorly in whole grains, sodium moderation and fatty acid balance. These results align with previous military nutrition research, which has consistently shown that soldiers consume too much refined grain, saturated fat, and sodium while lacking essential micronutrients.
Dietary supplements are also popular amongst the military, but are the safe? We review the risks of supplement use in this article.
Lessons from Belgian Military Selection Courses
A short-term Belgian study (Williamn de Bry et al, 2020) of 3 groups of army candidates: 21 Special Forces candidates, 22 Chasseurs Ardennais (CA) infantrymen and 42 recruits (RE) undergoing selection courses found that groups lost significant body weight over just 3-4 days. Average losses ranging from 1.3 kg to 1.7 kg, indicating inadequate energy intake.
Carbohydrate intake was often insufficient, particularly for recruits, who consumed just 4.9 g/kg/day, below the recommended 6-10 g/kg/day. In contrast, only 52 % of Special Forces, 32 % of CA, and 2.4% of RE met carbohydrate intake recommendations.
Fat intake, however, was excessive, especially among recruits, who derived 42.3% of energy from fat - well above the recommended upper limit of 35%. Saturated fat intake was also high across all groups, ranging from 13.6% to 21.4% of total energy intake, far exceeding the recommended <10%.
Protein intake was relatively sufficient, averaging 1.4-1.8 g/kg/day, supporting muscle maintenance.
Dehydration was a critical issue, particularly among Special Forces candidates, where only 5.4% of urine samples indicated optimal hydration, compared to 27.3% for infantrymen and 12.7% for recruits. Alarmingly, 14.9% of Special Forces candidates showed signs of serious dehydration.
Female Elite Warfighters: A US Perspective
There is a growing body of scientific literature based on studies specific to female warfighters although it is still limited. A 2024 US study compared dietary quality and cardiometabolic health among elite female warfighters, basic combat trainees and civilian women using food frequency questionnaires and the Healthy Eating Index (HEI-2020).
The findings revealed that elite female warfighters - women who have graduated from elite combat leadership courses such as the Ranger Training Course or Marine Infantry Officer Course - consumed a healthier, more nutrient-dense diet than both basic combat trainees and civilians. In fact, this group achieved a mean HEI-2020 score of 67 (± 11), markedly higher than the 48 (± 15) observed in civilian women.
They consumed approximately 2138 kcal per day. Their diet featured a notably higher protein intake (1.5 g/kg vs 1.0 g/kg), greater fat consumption (3.3 g/kg vs 1.1 g/kg) and lower carbohydrate intake (1.4 g/kg vs 3.1 g/kg) compared with civilians.
Higher scores in fruits, vegetables, whole grains and protein foods, along with improved blood biomarkers, suggest that the military nutrition environment fosters healthier eating habits that may reduce cardiometabolic risk and support long-term health.
For a general overview of issues affecting realting to the physiology of health and performance for female warfighters, please see the study by Karmon Dyches et al (2023) at bottom of page.
Protein Intake and Training Stimulus
Two studies from a UK researcher present differing conclusions regarding protein supplementation during military training. Nonetheless, they provide an interesting insight into how training and diet affects performance.
The first study following recruits in Basic Training found no significant benefits of pre-sleep protein supplementation (20g vs. 60g) on performance, body composition or recovery despite increased protein and energy intake.
In contrast, an 11-study meta-analysis found that protein intake ≥2.2 g/kg/day supports muscle strength, fat-free mass retention and fat loss, especially when taken post-exercise and before sleep.
Why the difference, what is going on?
Training Stimulus. The recruit study suggested that Basic Training for regular army recruits (note, these were not special forces candidates) lacks sufficient resistance training, limiting muscle growth. The meta-analysis found protein effective in supporting adaptations, but only when training provides enough stimulus to drive strength or fat free mass gains.
Timing & Dose. The meta-analysis emphasised post-exercise protein intake (20-40g) to maximise muscle protein synthesis , while the British Army study used pre-sleep protein, which may be less effective if total daily protein was already adequate.
Concurrent Training Effects. Concurrent training is the combination of strength and endurance training, but the interference effect occurs when excessive endurance training hampers strength and muscle gains due to competing adaptations in the body. The meta-analysis found that protein can counteract the interference effect to a certain degree. The recruit Basic Training program likely prioritised endurance over strength, diluting resistance training benefits.
In this instance, the results from the British Army recruit training study does not contradict the meta-analysis but highlights an important limitation - protein supplementation only enhances adaptations when the training stimulus is strong enough.
If resistance training volume is insufficient, additional protein does not independently drive muscle growth or strength gains.
How Pre-Selection Diet and Nutrition Affects Candidates
Stein et al (2023) study analysed the biochemical makeup of blood in 761 U.S. Army soldiers before they entered the Special Forces Assessment and Selection course. The goal was to identify biological differences between those who were ultimately selected and those who were not.
Soldiers who were selected had higher levels of compounds that support energy production, antioxidant defences and overall resilience, suggesting they were better prepared for the extreme demands of selection. Those who were not selected had higher levels of substances linked to oxidative stress, inflammation, and muscle breakdown - potentially signs that their bodies were struggling to recover from previous training or lacked the right nutrients for optimal performance. Poor diet quality also appeared to be linked to lower endurance and slower completion of physical tasks.
The study suggests that improving diet quality before selection may enhance physical resilience. Candidates should focus on:
Eating more antioxidant-rich foods, such as berries, leafy greens, garlic and coffee, which may help combat oxidative stress.
Consuming healthy fats, particularly from sources like olive oil, nuts and fatty fish, to support energy metabolism and reduce inflammation.
Prioritising whole foods over processed options, ensuring adequate intake of protein (lean meats, eggs, legumes) and complex carbohydrates (whole grains, sweet potatoes, brown rice) to fuel endurance and recovery.
Avoiding excessive refined grains, added sugars, and unhealthy fats, as these were linked to poorer performance and higher oxidative stress.
These findings suggest that a soldier’s biochemical readiness before selection plays a role in success; that optimising nutrition and recovery strategies may improve selection outcomes.
Hydration, A Singapore Perspective
Understanding the hydration status, dehydration and overhydration, of military personnel is an important part of training, especially in warmer climates. In Singapore, military endurance activities, such as a 72-km route march, place significant stress on fluid and electrolyte balance. While heat acclimatisation and cardiovascular fitness reduce thermal strain, nutritional strategies play a crucial role in preventing both dehydration and exercise-associated hyponatraemia (EAH) - poisoning from consuming to much water.
Research (Poon et al, 2022) highlights the risk of overhydration and sodium depletion during prolonged exertion. Participants in the study consumed 9.9L of fluids over 26 hours, with a notable 0.7% drop in serum sodium levels, suggesting that excessive fluid intake without adequate sodium replacement can contribute to EAH.
Military personnel should focus on ad libitum drinking based on thirst, include sodium in hydration strategies, and balance fluid intake with electrolyte replenishment to sustain performance and reduce EAH risk. Understanding one's personal sweat rate is a vital step towards creating a hydration strategy.
Singapore (our home base) has a mandatory draft, all men must conduct National Service. Read more about specifics for diet and nutrition here.
Supplements versus Food
While supplementation is often marketed as a shortcut to optimal performance, it cannot replace a well-balanced diet based on whole foods. A 'food first' approach provides the best results.
We review the latest findings on supplementation benefits, and risks, for military personnel, here.
Final Thoughts
Together, these studies highlight the crucial role of diet and nutrition in military performance. Candidates who eat better perform better, that nutrient deficiencies can limit long-term health and operational readiness. For military personnel, improving diet quality isn’t just about general health - it directly impacts endurance, strength and performance under pressure.
Protein intake (lack of protein) is rarely a problem issue. Prioritising vegetables, plant-based proteins, whole grains and adequate sodium intake while addressing vitamin D and omega-3 deficiencies could help candidates reach peak performance.
Applying sports nutrition principles to maximise performance and recovery is one essential skill to to practise. The best performers don’t just train harder - they eat smarter.
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Studies and Resources
The studies in review...
Oliver TE, Kusumpa S, Lutz LJ, McClung JP, McClung HL. Improved Diet Quality in Elite and Entry-Level Military Women Compared With Civilian-Matched Counterparts. Curr Dev Nutr. 2024 Nov 29;9(1):104517. doi: 10.1016/j.cdnut.2024.104517. PMID: 39810901; PMCID: PMC11732437.
Harlow J, Blodgett K, Stedman J, Pojednic R. Dietary Supplementation on Physical Performance and Recovery in Active-Duty Military Personnel: A Systematic Review of Randomized and Quasi-Experimental Controlled Trials. Nutrients. 2024 Aug 17;16(16):2746. doi: 10.3390/nu16162746. PMID: 39203882; PMCID: PMC11357047.
Chapman S, Roberts J, Roberts AJ, Ogden H, Izard R, Smith L, Chichger H, Struszczak L, Rawcliffe AJ. Pre-sleep protein supplementation does not improve performance, body composition, and recovery in British Army recruits (part 1). Front Nutr. 2023 Nov 30;10:1262044. doi: 10.3389/fnut.2023.1262044. PMID: 38144428; PMCID: PMC10748761.
Karmon D Dyches, Karl E Friedl, Julie P Greeves, Margaux F Keller, Holly L McClung, Michael S McGurk, Kristin L Popp, Deydre S Teyhen, Physiology of Health and Performance: Enabling Success of Women in Combat Arms Roles, Military Medicine, Volume 188, Issue Supplement_4, September/October 2023, Pages 19–31, https://doi.org/10.1093/milmed/usac256
Poon BH, Prakaash S, Teo YS, Fan PW, Wei Lee JK. Thermal strain and fluid balance during a 72-km military route march in a field setting. Singapore Med J. 2022 Sep;63(9):497-502. doi: 10.11622/smedj.2021053. Epub 2021 Apr 19. PMID: 34005849; PMCID: PMC9678143.
Chapman S, Chung HC, Rawcliffe AJ, Izard R, Smith L, Roberts JD. Does Protein Supplementation Support Adaptations to Arduous Concurrent Exercise Training? A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis with Military Based Applications. Nutrients. 2021 Apr 23;13(5):1416. doi: 10.3390/nu13051416. PMID: 33922458; PMCID: PMC8145048.
Farina EK, Thompson LA, Knapik JJ, Pasiakos SM, Lieberman HR, McClung JP. Diet Quality Is Associated with Physical Performance and Special Forces Selection. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2020 Jan;52(1):178-186. doi: 10.1249/MSS.0000000000002111. PMID: 31436735; PMCID: PMC7028476.
De Bry W, Mullie P, D'Hondt E, Clarys P. Dietary Intake, Hydration Status, and Body Composition of Three Belgian Military Groups. Mil Med. 2020 Aug 14;185(7-8):e1175-e1182. doi: 10.1093/milmed/usaa061. PMID: 32328651.
Rittenhouse M, Scott J, Deuster P. Healthy Eating Index and Nutrition Biomarkers among Army Soldiers and Civilian Control Group Indicate an Intervention Is Necessary to Raise Omega-3 Index and Vitamin D and Improve Diet Quality. Nutrients. 2020 Dec 31;13(1):122. doi: 10.3390/nu13010122. PMID: 33396252; PMCID: PMC7823425.
Other
Straits Times, Oct 03, 2024, S’poreans want to eat healthy, but fewer than 1 in 4 knows what makes for a balanced meal: Study
Dion, S.; Walker, G.; Lambert, K.; Stefoska-Needham, A.; Craddock, J.C. The Diet Quality of Athletes as Measured by Diet Quality Indices: A Scoping Review. Nutrients 2025, 17, 89. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu17010089
Fallowfield JL, McClung JP, Gaffney-Stomberg E, Probert B, Peterson R, Charlebois A, Boilard H, Carins J, Kilding H. Nutrition as a military capability to deliver human advantage: more people, more ready, more of the time. BMJ Mil Health. 2024 Jun 27:e002738. doi: 10.1136/military-2024-002738. Epub ahead of print. PMID: 38942432.
Mizushima R, Miyachi M, Yoshimura E, Hatamoto Y, Matsumoto M, Hamada Y, Hatanaka M, Maeno A, Shimomura C, Takimoto H. Dietary reference intake for military operations: a scoping review. PeerJ. 2024 Nov 4;12:e18353. doi: 10.7717/peerj.18353. PMID: 39512308; PMCID: PMC11542563.
Rawcliffe AJ, Ogden HB, Rushmere J, Morgan ASL, Jacka K, Struszczak L, Chapman S, Roberts A. Nutritional knowledge in British Army recruits during basic training. BMJ Mil Health. 2024 Jan 25;170(1):15-19. doi: 10.1136/bmjmilitary-2021-002036. PMID: 35577397.
Hao X, Li D. The Healthy Eating Index-2015 and All-Cause/Cause-Specific Mortality: A Systematic Review and Dose-Response Meta-Analysis. Adv Nutr. 2024 Mar;15(3):100166. doi: 10.1016/j.advnut.2023.100166. Epub 2024 Feb 23. PMID: 38461130; PMCID: PMC10980904.
Chapman S, Roberts J, Roberts AJ, Ogden H, Izard R, Smith L, Chichger H, Struszczak L, Rawcliffe AJ. Pre-sleep protein supplementation does not improve recovery from load carriage in British Army recruits (part 2). Front Nutr. 2023 Nov 30;10:1264042. doi: 10.3389/fnut.2023.1264042. PMID: 38130446; PMCID: PMC10733965.
Anderson RE 3rd, Casperson SL, Kho H, Flack KD. The Role of Dietary Protein in Body Weight Regulation among Active-Duty Military Personnel during Energy Deficit: A Systematic Review. Nutrients. 2023 Sep 12;15(18):3948. doi: 10.3390/nu15183948. PMID: 37764730; PMCID: PMC10536394.
Stein JA, Farina EK, Karl JP, Thompson LA, Knapik JJ, Pasiakos SM, McClung JP, Lieberman HR. Biomarkers of oxidative stress, diet and exercise distinguish soldiers selected and non-selected for special forces training. Metabolomics. 2023 Apr 11;19(4):39. doi: 10.1007/s11306-023-01998-9. PMID: 37041398; PMCID: PMC10090007.
Gonzalez DE, McAllister MJ, Waldman HS, Ferrando AA, Joyce J, Barringer ND, Dawes JJ, Kieffer AJ, Harvey T, Kerksick CM, Stout JR, Ziegenfuss TN, Zapp A, Tartar JL, Heileson JL, VanDusseldorp TA, Kalman DS, Campbell BI, Antonio J, Kreider RB. International society of sports nutrition position stand: tactical athlete nutrition. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2022 Jun 23;19(1):267-315. doi: 10.1080/15502783.2022.2086017. PMID: 35813846; PMCID: PMC9261739.
Chong MF, Lim HX, Wong BWX, Chi ZH, Inthujaa JK, Müller-Riemenschneider F, Cheon BK, Gorny AW, Chia KS. Transiting Out of Full-Time National Service: A Qualitative Study of Barriers and Motivators of Weight Change in Young Adult Men in Singapore. Am J Mens Health. 2022 Mar-Apr;16(2):15579883221074788. doi: 10.1177/15579883221074788. PMID: 35272525; PMCID: PMC8921754.
Heileson JL, Funderburk LK, Cardaci TD. Applications of Fish Oil Supplementation for Special Operators. J Spec Oper Med. 2021 Spring;21(1):78-85. doi: 10.55460/YZI5-1NMV. PMID: 33721311.
Heileson JL, Funderburk LK. The effect of fish oil supplementation on the promotion and preservation of lean body mass, strength, and recovery from physiological stress in young, healthy adults: a systematic review. Nutr Rev. 2020 Dec 1;78(12):1001-1014. doi: 10.1093/nutrit/nuaa034. PMID: 32483626.
O'Leary TJ, Wardle SL, Greeves JP. Energy Deficiency in Soldiers: The Risk of the Athlete Triad and Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport Syndromes in the Military. Front Nutr. 2020 Aug 25;7:142. doi: 10.3389/fnut.2020.00142. PMID: 32984399; PMCID: PMC7477333.
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Units
France: French Foreign Legion 2eme Rep
Singapore Commandos and Special Operations Task Force
Singapore Naval Diving Unit
UK The Parachute Regiment and Pathfinder Platoon
UK Royal Marines and SBS
US Navy Seals
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